Vulvovaginal Candidiasis in Pregnant Women: Antifungal Susceptibility Insights | IJMM 2025

Kpongbo Etienne Angora,  Matenin Ouattara,  Maurine Aline N’guiachi,  Salifou Koné,  N’drin Effoh, Vincent Djohan, Hervé Eby Menan, and  Adèle Kacou N’douba, from the institute of the Côte d’Ivoire. Wrote a research paper about, Vulvovaginal Candidiasis in Pregnant Women: Antifungal Susceptibility Insights. Entitle, Vulvovaginal candidiasis and antifungal susceptibility patterns among pregnant women at the university hospital of Angré, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. This research paper published by the International journal of Microbiology and Mycology | IJMM.an open access scholarly research journal on Microbiology. under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences| INNSpub. an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher.

Abstract

Vulvovaginal candidiasis is a frequent reason for consultation in gynecology. Few studies have been conducted in pregnant women, even though they may be asymptomatic. This study aimed to determine the epidemiological profile of vulvovaginal and antifungal susceptibility patterns among pregnant women at the university teaching hospital of Angré in Abidjan. This cross-sectional study was carried out in the gynecology-obstetrics department of the Angré University Hospital from June to October 2024. Swabs were taken from Pregnant women for mycological analyses. Each sample was examined directly and cultured at 37°C on Sabouraud-Chloramphenicol medium. Candida yeasts were identified using Chromagar Candida medium or Vitek 2. Antifungal susceptibility was determined using the agar diffusion method with discs. Of total of 402 women included, 70 were positive on culture, representing an overall vaginal candidiasis carriage rate of 19.2%. The yeast species identified were Candida albicans (48.1%), Candida krusei (27.8%), Candida tropicalis (12.7%), and Candida glabrata (11.4%). Symptoms such as vaginal discharge, vulvar pruritus, and dyspareunia were statistically linked to Candida carriage (p<0.05). Non-albicans species showed low sensitivity to antifungal agents. Candida krusei was only 68% susceptible to amphotericin B and econazole while Candida tropicalis had low susceptibility. This study showed a relatively high frequency of Candida yeasts in pregnant women. The emergence of non- albicans with less susceptibility to the antifungal drugs highlights the importance of systematically screening pregnant women to better manage vulvovaginal candidiasis. 

Introduction

Vulvovaginal candidiasis is a common reason for gynecological consultations and ranks second after bacterial vaginosis (Sobel, 2007; Konaté et al., 2014). It is estimated that 75% of women experience at least one episode of candidiasis during their lifetime. Among these women, some will have several episodes and around 5 to 8% will develop recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), characterized by at least four confirmed episodes in a year (Achkar and Fries, 2010).

Certain risk factors for VVC are related to sexual activity, recent antibiotic use, immunosuppression attributable to conditions such as poorly controlled HIV infection or diabetes, and pregnancy (Benchellal et al., 2011; Roy et al., 2024). All of these factors contribute to an imbalance in the vaginal flora and the onset of clinical and biological symptoms. Pregnancy is the leading factor promoting CVV due to the hormonal changes observed (Ogouyèmi-Hounto et al., 2014; Blomberg et al., 2023). Candida species are part of the normal flora of the genital tract. In healthy asymptomatic non-pregnant women, these yeasts have been found in 20–30% (Achkar and Fries, 2010; Ghaddar et al., 2020). This situation only poses a danger to the fetus and newborn when the manifestations occur in a context of prematurity or when the prognosis may be lifethreatening (Hong et al., 2014; Duarte et al., 2024). When vaginal candidiasis is not asymptomatic, it can lead to vulvar pruritus and characteristic vaginal discharge. These symptoms may be associated with dysuria, dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, or vulvar burning (Gai et al., 2023).

Untreated, vaginal candidiasis can lead to chorioamnionitis with subsequent miscarriage and prematurity in pregnant women, or congenital infection of inflammatory disease in newborns and pelvic inflammatory disease in infertile women (Ahmad and Khan, 2009; Gedefie et al., 2025).

Vulvovaginal candidiasis is most often caused by the overabundance of an opportunistic pathogenic yeast, Candida albicans (approximately 90%), which is a common member of the vaginal flora (Hussen et al., 2024). Moreover, the emergence of Candida species isolated from clinical samples, indicated that nonalbicans species were considered emerging fungal pathogens in pregnant women (Hussen et al., 2024; Gedefie et al., 2025). These yeasts are commensal species of the skin and gastrointestinal tract, but may be present in the vaginal tract of 20 to 30% of asymptomatic healthy women at any given time. If the balance between the colonizing yeast and the host is temporarily disrupted, Candida can cause infections such as vaginal candidiasis, associated with clinical signs of inflammation (Achkar and Fries, 2010). Candida albicans is known to be resistant to certain antifungal drugs and is generally treated with azole antifungals due to their low toxicity and availability (Dovnik et al., 2015; Whaley et al., 2016).

Vulvovaginal candidiasis is a public health issue due to the morbidity associated with symptoms in women (Bitew and Abebaw, 2018). The prevalence varies from one country to another. In Côte d'Ivoire, some studies in women reported that the prevalence rate was higher than 28% from non-pregnant women (Djohan et al., 2012; Konaté et al., 2014). Few studies have focused on vaginal candidiasis in pregnant women. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of vulvovaginal and antifungal susceptibility pattern among pregnant women at the university teaching hospital of Angré in Abidjan.

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Article source : Vulvovaginal candidiasis and antifungal susceptibility patterns among pregnant women at the university hospital of Angré, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire 

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Ethnobotanical Approaches to Malaria Vector Control | IJB 2025

Eloi Honvoh, Laboratory of Pluridisciplinary Researches of Technical Teaching (LaRPET), Normal High School of Technical Teaching (ENSET) of Lokossa, National University of Sciences, Technologies, Engineering and Mathematics (UNSTIM) of Abomey, P. O. Box 133 Lokossa, Benin. Nazaire Aïzoun, Laboratory of Pluridisciplinary Researches of Technical Teaching (LaRPET), Normal High School of Technical Teaching (ENSET) of Lokossa, National University of Sciences, Technologies, Engineering and Mathematics (UNSTIM) of Abomey, P. O. Box 133 Lokossa, Benin. Arlette Adjatin, Laboratory of Genetics, Biotechnology and Applied Botany (GEBBA), National High School of Applied Biosciences and Biotechnology (ENSBBA) of Dassa-Zoumè, National University of Sciences, Technologies, Engineering and Mathematics (UNSTIM) of Abomey, Benin.Crispus Tossa, Laboratory of Genetics, Biotechnology and Applied Botany (GEBBA), National High School of Applied Biosciences and Biotechnology (ENSBBA) of Dassa-Zoumè, National University of Sciences, Technologies, Engineering and Mathematics (UNSTIM) of Abomey, Benin. Daniel Chougourou, Department of Environment Genius, Polytechnic School of Abomey-Calavi (EPAC), University of Abomey-Calavi (UAC), Cotonou, Benin.Wrote a research paper about, Ethnobotanical Approaches to Malaria Vector Control entitled, Ethnobotanical study for malaria vector control in Couffo department in south-western Republic of Benin, West Africa. This research paper published by the International Journal of Biosciences | IJB. an open access scholarly research journal on Biosciences. under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences| INNSpub. an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher.

Abstract

The use of chemical insecticides causes important damages to environment and human health and there is a need to search for alternative solutions. Field surveys were organized from September to November 2023 during the small raining season in districts of Aplahoué, Djakotomey, Dogbo, Klouékanmè, lalo and Toviklin in Couffo department. Two villages were chosen in each of these districts by taking into account the sociodemographic data and the diversity of plants. The locations where these villages were chosen in each district were: Kissamey (Aplahoué), Kokohoué (Djakotomey), Totchangni (Dogbo), Tchikpé (klouekanmey), Doko (Toviklin) and Banigbé (Lalo). Then, investigations were done using ethnobotanical questions. These questions concerned: local names of plants used, the different organs of plants used, the using forms and using modes of these plants in malaria vector control in the villages surveyed. The results showed that more than thirty (30) plants were used by the people of Adja region in malaria vector control. These plants were used as powder applied on the skin of people in order to avoid that the mosquitoes took their meals on their body. The fumigation was the most using mode of cited plant species. Ethnobotanical study is very important in a context of resistance of malaria vector to the main classes of insecticide used in public health. 

 

Introduction

Globally, in 2023, the number of malaria cases was estimated at 263 million, with an incidence of 60.4 cases per 1000 population at risk. This is an increase of 11 million cases from the previous year and a rise in incidence from 58.6 cases per 1000 population at risk in 2022. The WHO African Region continues to carry the heaviest burden of the disease, accounting for an estimated 94% of malaria cases worldwide in 2023. The WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region has experienced a 57% increase in incidence since 2021, risingto 17.9 cases per 1000 population at risk in 2023 (World Malaria Report, 2024).

Globally, in 2023, the number of deaths was estimated at 597 000, with a mortality rate of 13.7 per 100 000. The number of malaria deaths and the mortality rate steadily decreased from 622 000 and 14.9 deaths per 100 000, respectively, in 2020. The WHO African Region continues to carry the heaviest burden of mortality, with 95% of estimated malaria deaths worldwide (World Malaria Report, 2024).

Conventionally, synthetic insecticides organochlorines, carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids temephos, fenthion, malathion, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) were expensive, leaving a residual effect, adapting resistance, non-biodegradable, toxicity to non-target organisms (Anyaele and Amusan, 2003). These problems urged the researchers for an expeditious search for new alternatives. Botanical-based insecticides were currently one of the most promising approaches, much research currently being devoted to plant extracts for the development of sustainable botanical insecticides (Liang et al., 2015). Plant extracts contain a mixture of several chemical active ingredients and thus may be able to effectively kill the mosquito through a different mechanism (Pavela, 2015). For the past two decades, numerous researches have been conducted on the biological activity of plant extracts against larvae of mosquitoes and insects, in that few plant extracts were commercialized. This shows that plant extracts were environmentally safe, non-toxicity against humans and other organisms (Govindarajan et al., 2016).

Extracts from plants may be alternative sources of mosquito control agents, since they constitute a rich source of bioactive compounds that are biodegradable into nontoxic products and potentially suitable for use to control mosquitoes. Plant extracts in general have been recognized as an important natural resource of insecticides. Phytochemicals derived from plant sources can act as larvicides, insect growth regulators, repellents, and oviposition attractants and can play an important role in the interruption of the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases at the individual as well as at the community level (Govindarajan et al., 2008a; 2008b).

Very few researches were published on the ethnobotanical study for the control of mosquitoborne diseases in Republic of Benin. Therefore, there is a need to carry out new researches for this purpose.

The goal of this research was to study the ethnobotany for malaria vector control in Couffo department in south-western Republic of Benin, West Africa.

Reference

Aïzoun N, Djèdatin G, Koukoui O, Chougourou D. 2022a. Larvicidal and repellent activities of ethanolic extract of Artemisia annua (Asteraceae) and Carica papaya linn (Caricaceae) leaves in malaria vector control in Dogbo district in south-western Benin, West Africa. European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research 9(9), 80-88.

Aïzoun N, Adjatin A, Koukoui O, Chougourou D. 2022b. Larvicidal activities of ethanolic extracts of Hyptis suaveolens Linn (Lamiaceae) and Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) leaves and their phytochemical properties in malaria vector control in Dogbo district in South-western Benin, West Africa. Global Journal of Engineering and Technological Advances 12(02), 113–120. https://doi.org/10.30574/gjeta.2022.12.2.0143.

Aïzoun N, Adjatin A. 2023. Repellent activities of ethanolic extract of Hyptis suaveolens linn. (Lamiaceae) and Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) leaves in malaria vector control in Dogbo district in south-western Benin, West Africa. European Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 10(9), 46-51.

Aïzoun N, Codjia S, Honvoh E, Chougourou D. 2025. Repellent activities of ethanolic extract of Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae) and Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae) leaves in malaria vector control in Dogbo district in south-western Benin, West Africa. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 14(01), 159-167.

Anyaele OO, Amusan AAS. 2003. Toxicity of  hexanoic extracts of Dennettiatripetala (G. Baxer) on larvae of Aedes aegypti (L.). African Journal of Biomedical Research 6, 49-53.

Govindarajan M, Jebanesan A, Pushpanathan T. 2008a. Larvicidal and ovicidal activity of  Cassia fistula Linn. leaf extract against filarial and malarial vector mosquitoes. Parasitology Research 102, 289-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-007-0761-y.

Govindarajan M, Jebanesan A, Pushpanathan T, Samidurai K. 2008b. Studies on effect of Acalypha indica  L. (Euphorbiaceae) leaf extracts on the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research 103, 691-695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-008-1032-2.

Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M, Bhattacharyya A, Benelli G. 2016. Eugenol, apinene and ß-caryophyllene from Plectranthusbarbatus essential oil as ecofriendly larvicides against malaria, dengue and Japanese encephalitis mosquito vectors. Parasitology Research 115(2), 807-815. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-015-4809-0.

Honvoh E, Aïzoun N, Adjatin A, Chougourou D. 2025. Comparison of larvicidal activities of ethanolic extract of six plants leaves in malaria vector control in Couffo department in south-western Benin, West Africa. European Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 12(1), 41-49.

Liang Y, Li Xiuwei, Zumin Gu Peiwen Qin, Ji Mingshan. 2015. Toxicity of amorphigenin from the seeds of Amorpha fruticosa against the larvae of Culex pipiens pallens (Diptera: Culicidae). Molecules 20, 3238–3254. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20023238

Pavela R. 2015. Acute toxicity and synergistic and antagonistic effects of the aromatic compounds of some essential oils against Culex quinquefasciatus Say larvae. Parasitology Research 114, 3835–3853. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-015-4614-9

WHO. World Malaria Report 2024. Geneva. World Heath Organization.

Article source : Ethnobotanical study for malaria vector control in Couffo department in south-western Republic ofBenin, West Africa 

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Hidden Toxicity of Femoral Orthopedic Implants | IJB 2026

Haroon Habib Beigh,  Nabeel Khan and Mirza Masroor Ali Beg, from the institute of the Kazakhstan. wrote a review paper about, Hidden Toxicity of Femoral Orthopedic Implants entitled, The hidden burden: A review of toxicity from femoral orthopedic implants. This research paper published by the International Journal of Biosciences | IJB. an open access scholarly research journal on Biosciences under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences | INNSpub. an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher. 

Abstract

Locomotion is one of the essential characters of humans. During daily activity human body is subjected to several factors such as shock, stress, strain and other environmental factors. Most of times human body remains un-affected by these factors as they are contradicted by skin, fats, muscles, bones etc. But when the body is subjected to a trauma of higher impact an injury can occur which can affect capability of human body. One of the common injuries is bone fractures. Among the bone’s femur is susceptible to the fractures being the longest bone in the human body. Femoral fractures affect mobility of humans to the greater extent; in order to restore maximum function of femur, implants are used to treat fractures. Implants such as nails, Screws, plates are used to repair the bone. These implants are either made up of metals or alloys commonly used metals are titanium, gold, iron, cobalt, chromium and several others that have been reported to cause one or other toxicological episodes. Femoral fractures may take months to get treated and till the time implants are embedded in human body. Within this time frame implants start producing oxides that may result in several implications such as hypersensitivity, allergies, neurological problems and other toxicological implications. 

 

 Introduction

Femoral shaft fractures are a common orthopedic injury due to high impact trauma. The incidence of femoral shaft fracture ranges between 10 and 21 per 100,000 per year and out of these 2 percent are open fractures. The most common etiological factor is due to high or low energy mechanisms, most commonly caused by automobile accidents and falls from height. Low energy impact injuries are more common in elderly population suffering from osteoporosis (Ghouri et al., 2023). Common femoral factures are indicated in (Fig. 1).

There has been 1-9 % incidence of proximal femur fractures (femur head and neck and intertrochanteric) associated with femur shaft fractures and 20-50% of such associated fractures go unnoticed. Such associated fractures should be investigated thoroughly as they are clinically important for further management. Intramedullary nailing is the gold standard for the treatment of femoral shaft fractures. Along with the femoral shaft fractures, there is another type of femoral fracture closely associated with implants in their management. These are the femoral neck fractures which is a type of intra-capsular hip fracture. The femoral neck is the connection between the femoral head and the shaft; the head of femur articulates with the acetabulum therefore this junctional location makes the neck of femur prone to fractures. Results of annual census indicate that out of 1.6 million hip fractures annually, 70 percent of these fractures occur in women indicating a strong correlation between female gender and hip fractures (Osteoporosis Canada, 2021). Other risk factors include osteoporosis and decreased mobility. The management of such fractures depends on several factors such as Age, Displacement of fracture etc. Elderly patients with displaced fracture either undergo Hemiarthroplasty or Total hip arthroplasty depending upon their baseline activity level and age (Sansone et al., 2013).

Orthopedic implants are broadly divided into Permanent, including hip, knee, ankle, shoulder, elbow wrists and finger joints, and Temporary including wires, screws, plates and intra-medullary nails. Metallic alloys, ceramic and polymers are the principal compositional part of such implants (Ghouri et al., 2023; Al-Shalawi et al., 2023).

Titanium alloys are most commonly used in the production of orthopedic implants such as intramedullary nails and total hip femoral stem (Jacobs et al., 2001). The reason for this is that Titanium has the key properties desirable for any implanted material in the body, which is resistance to metabolism by the body and to the oxidative processes therefore not leading to production of any active metabolites. Titanium when used as an implant leads to form a thin oxidative film over the implant which is biologically inert. Stainless steel is also a component of choice in various implants and has been the earliest modern implant being used worldwide. The most commonly used alloy is 316L composed of iron, chromium, nickel and molybdenum. It’s generally used in making nails, screws and early generation intramedullary nails. Cobalt Chrome implants have also been widely used in total hip arthroplasties. It is a biological inert agent but these implants are avoided in patients with nickel allergy as it might cause metal hypersensitivity reaction (Tapscott and Wottowa, 2025).

Biocompatibility refers to how our body reacts and interacts with foreign matter. In terms of orthopedic implants, it implies how the implant will perform its function and the body has a non-pathological response to the specific implant. Majority of the implants made from stainless steel; titanium alloys and cobalt and chromium (Co-Cr) alloys have excellent biocompatibility due to their inert nature. Corrosion is also a significant factor when it comes to choosing the type of materials for implants as this process can lead to release of cytotoxic, allergenic and carcinogenic substances in the body (Al-Shalawi et al., 2023).

Chromium and Cobalt are a major component of orthopedic implants and they are also a component of several enzymes in our body. Their high doses especially Cobalt can have toxic effects on our body systems leading to several symptoms of neurological, cardiological, hematological and endocrinological nature. Cobalt (Co) toxicity can cause tinnitus, vertigo, deafness and convulsions, also it can lead to hypothyroidism, polycythemia and cardiomyopathies (Sansone et al., 2013). The incidence of such cases is low but literatures have put up case reports of Co-Cr toxicity after THR (Total Hip Replacement) surgeries. Cobalt toxicity in such cases can lead to anorexia, fatigue, auditory or ophthalmological damage (Samargandi et al., 2024).

Metal on metal configuration in hip arthroplasty significantly elevates serum Co and Cr level as several researches have indicated and this also correlated with the increase in the level of pain (Stołtny et al., 2023). There has been a case report on bilateral visual loss after multiple hip arthroplasties along with hypothyroidism and neuropathy. The patient’s Co serum level was found to be >1000 µg/L (normal range 0-0.9ng/mL). There was a decrease in visual acuity in both the eyes along with bilateral temporal optic disc pallor (Garcia et al., 2020). Aluminum toxicity can cause memory loss, gait disturbances and might lead to development of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. A metal-on-metal hip implant consisting of Co and Cr alloy have shown an unusual increased lymphocytic infiltration and plasma cell accumulation in the peri-prosthetic tissues as compared to other implants. In the case of hip arthroplasty with conventional implants there is no lymphocytic infiltration or plasma cells presence instead the inflammation is histiocytic predominant (Hallab et al., 2001).

Chronic accumulation of Aluminum in brain can lead to development of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease and in kidneys can cause fibrosis in the glomeruli and Bowman’s corpuscles (Peto, 2010; Ollivere et al., 2012). Several studies have suggested severe complications or toxicities associated with orthopedic implants or associated metals (Table 1).

Based on the type of femoral facture different set of implants can be used to modulate the fracture such as Femoral Head, Plates, Screws, Endoprosthetic Replacements, Femoral Stems and femoral Nails. Insertion and placement of implants can lead to emotional and economic distress along with discomfort in locomotion. Patients have to go for long term treatment after surgery and physiotherapy in order to walk properly.

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Article source : The hidden burden: Areview of toxicity from femoral orthopedic implants   

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Plants Powering Cleaner Wastewater: Reed Bed Treatment | IJB 2016

Hontonho E. J. Deguenon, Martin P. Aina, Akuemaho V. O. Akowanou, and Dominique C. K. Sohounhloue. From the institute of Benin. wrote a research paper about, Plants Powering Cleaner Wastewater: Reed Bed Treatment. Entitled, Purifying performances of different plants in domestic waste water treatment with reed beds. This research paper published by the  International Journal of Biosciences | IJB. an open access scholarly research journal on Biosciences, under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences | INNSpub, an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher.

Abstract

The rejection of untreated waste water in the nature decreases groundwater quality. Waste water treatment plants like activated sludge plant and stabilization pond plant built in Benin show their limits. Due to these problems, reed beds have to be experimented to bring a durable solution to waste water treatment problems in Benin. Compare to activated sludge plant and to stabilization pond plant, reed beds are the cheapest based on the technical and economical point of view. On addition to that, reed beds are easy to build and to maintain. The experiment plant is composed of four basins. The first basin is unplanted. The second basin is planted with Echinochloa pyramidalis. The third basin is planted with Panicum maximum and the last basin is planted with Typha domingensis. Each basin is a 1 m3 tank with drilled drain pipes. Three differentl ayers of gravel have been put on drilled drain pipes. Treated water analysis showed that the Typha domingensis basin has the best purfiying performances with final concentrations : 0 mg/L ; 21,10 mg/L ; 10 mg/L ; 0 mg/L et 12,20 mg/L respectively for TSS, COD, BOD5, TKN and TP. These final concentrations reached the discharge standards for municipal wastewater treatment plant in Benin. Consequently, Typha domingensis beds can be popularized by the beninese government to solve waste water treatment problems. 

Introduction

In Benin, available fresh water is more and more polluted by domestic waste water. This pollution decreases groundwater quality and leads to hydric diseases. This pollution also increases the drinking water price. Hydric diseases in volve thousand children deaths each year in Benin. In Benin, poor people consume polluted water without treatment. According to Kivaisi, reed bed plant is a cheaper waste water treatment process based on technical and economical point of view. On addition to that reed beds can be used to solve waste water treatment problems in developing countries like Benin (Kivaisi, 2001). Moreover, reed beds are easy to build and to maintain (Denny, 1997; Haberl, 1999; Konnerup et al., 2009). Hounkpe demonstated that the domestic waste water management in Benin is very critical. Benin has only three waste water treatment plants to treat waste water conveyed by emptying trucks. There are a waste water treatment plant in Ekpe, PortoNovo and Parakou. Sadly these waste water treatment plants show their limits (Hounkpe, 2014). Due to all these problems, reed beds have to be experimented to bring a durable solution to waste water treatment problems in Benin (Aina et al., 2012). Benin is a developing country. So reed bed plant is a new idea to explore in order to treat waste water in Benin. Deguenon has been the first scientist to assess purification performance of planted filters in Benin using phragmites (Deguenon, 2013). Now, three other species of plant will be tested and their purification performances will be compared. So that a technical document will be written and given to each municipal authority to popularize reed bed process in every household in Benin.

The purification of waste water in reed beds occurs in different stages. These stages are known and have been developed by many scientists (Salt et al., 1998; Williams, 2002; Vymazal, 2005; Imfeld et al., 2009; Reiche et al., 2010). According to Calheiros et al. (2009), purification’s mechanism of waste water in reed beds leans on physical, chemical and biological processes (Microbiological degradation in the rhizosphere, absorption and plant metabolism). The wastewater treatment process by planted filters is based on the principle of fixed cultures that is to say of aerobic biological treatment in gravel layers fine to coarse (Poulet et al., 2004). The gravel is not regularly renewed or washed. In planted filter, wastewater are treated by firstly a filtration and then anaerobic biological degradation (Seidel, 1967; Prigent, 2012). There are two kinds of planted filtert ypes according to the flow direction: vertical flow’s planted filters and horizontal flow’s planted filters. Only vertical flow’s planted filters are experimented in this study. Several plants have been used by scientists in reed beds. All Beninese plants have been listed in a book named « flore analytique du Bénin ». To popularize reed beds in Benin, plants have to be available and accessible to people. According to the combination of information provided by the book named « flore analytique du Bénin » and the list of plants often used in reed beds, three plants can be used in Benin for reed beds: Typha domingensis, Panicum maximum and Echinochloa pyramidalis Ouattara experimented one Panicum maximum planted filter basin to treat domestic waste water. These domestic wastewater have the following characteristics: 1519 ± 247 mg/l; 1256 ± 571 mgO2/l; 128 ± 58 mg/l et 6, 2 ± 2,2 mg/l respectively for TSS, COD, NH4 +, PO4 3- . With these domestic wastewater Ouattara obtained the following purification yields: 91,4%, 85, 5%, 86, 5%, 74% respectively for TSS, COD, NH4 +, PO4 3- (Ouattara et al., 2008). Korboulewsky tested one Typha latifolia planted filter basin to treat domestic waste water. These domestic waste water have the following characteristics : 7360 mg/L, 6055 mg/L,211 mg/L, 37mg/L respectively for TSS, COD, TKN, TP. With these domestic waste water Korboulewsky obtained the following purification yields: 99,9%; 98,5%; 99,5% et 99,2% respectively for TSS, COD, TKN, TP. Ouattara and Korboulewsky used vertical flow for their planted filter. Korboulewsky’s domestic waste water are higher concentrated than Ouattara’s domestic waste water. Nevertheless, when Ouattara’s purification yields are compared to Korboulewsky’s yields, Typha latifolia’s yields seems to be upper than Panicum maximum’s yields. So despite the fact that Korboulewsky used higher concentrated waste water, Typha latifolia’s purification yields is upper than Panicum maximum’s purification yields. In other words, Typha latifolia’s purification capacity is exceptional. Kengne experimented one Echinochloa pyramidalis planted filter basin to treat faecal sludge. Kengne obtained the following purfication yields : 92%, 98% and 78% respectively for COD, TSS and NH4 + (Kengne, 2008). If a purification capacity classification from higher to lower is made for these three plants (Typha latifolia, Panicum maximum and Echinochloa pyramidalis), Echinochloa pyramidalis will be the first in this diagram, then Typha latifolia and Panicum maximum will be the last one. The aim of this study is to compare the purification capacity of three plants (Typha domingensis, Panicum maximum and Echinochloa pyramidalis) in order to show if Echinochloa pyramidalisis is also the highest purification plant in Beninese weather conditions.

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Article source : Purifying performances of different plants in domestic waste water treatment with reed beds 

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Ethmalosa Fish Flour: Quality and Nutritional Potential | IJB 2013

René G. Dègnon, Euloge S. Adjou, Clément Ahouannou, Edwige DahouenonAhoussi, Mohamed M. Soumanou,  and Dominique C.K. Sohounhloué, from the institute of Benin.  wrote a research paper about, Ethmalosa Fish Flour: Quality and Nutritional Potential. Entitled, Evaluation of the microbiological and nutritional quality of two types of fish flours from Ethmalosa fimbriata for their use as a dietary supplement. This research paper published by the International Journal of Biosciences | IJB. an open access scholarly research journal on Biosciences, under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences | INNSpub, an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher.

Abstract

Post-harvest fish conservation remains a recurring fishing industry problem in Benin. Etmalosa fimbriata is a non-oily fish commonly found on the Benin artisanal fisheries. Thus, this study aims to produce fish flour from Ethmalosa fimbriata and evaluate their physicochemical and microbiological characteristics and their potential nutritional qualities. The results indicated that fish flours produced are high in protein content (53.84 ± 0.09%) and minerals such as phosphorus (0.48 ± 0.03 to 1.83 ± 0.01%), calcium (0.26 ± 0.04 to 3.02 ± 0.08%), magnesium (0.09 ± 0.01 to 0.18 ± 0.05%) and iron (194.86 ± 0.06 to 246.82 ± 0.05 mg/kg). The results of the assessment of the sanitary quality of fish flour produced showed that the use of these fish whole alter the microbiological quality of flour produced and it would be better to use headless fish in feed formulation especially for children and immunodeficiency people 

 

Introduction

According to the World Health Organization, malnutrition is the cellular imbalance between the supply of nutrients and energy and the body's demand for them to ensure growth, maintenance, and specific functions (Tierney et al., 2010). The term protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) applied to a group of related disorders that include marasmus, kwashiorkor, and intermediate states of marasmuskwashiorkor (Tierney et al., 2010). The most common form of malnutrition in Africa is protein energy deficiency affecting over 100 million people, especially 30 to 50 million children under 5 years of age (Jildeh et al., 2010).

Fish and fish products have an important place in the diet of the people of West Africa (FAO, 2000). They are rich in proteins and the nutritional value of these proteins is comparable to that of the egg, milk and meat (Heen and Kreuzer, 1962).

In Benin, fishing has an important place in the national socio-economic balance as it sustains some 500,000 people and accounts for 3% of GDP (Tossou, 2010). Fishes are processed into various products to increase the bioavailability of its proteins. Among these products, fish flours appear to have a high nutritional value (FAO, 2006). However, the conservation of fish is very difficult due to the lack of adequate conservation system and post-harvest losses are estimated at about 20% (Anihouvi et al., 2005). Indeed, there are many problems related to the conservation of fish, such as microbiological deterioration and fat oxidation.

The most commonly used methods of preservation, are salting, drying, fish fermentation, fish smoking, refrigeration or freezing. Despite these methods, the full-time availability of this important resource of animal protein still persists and according to FAO (2000) the lack of protein in the diet of people is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies and affected many people in tropical countries. Traditionally, fish flours were produced to be used for food fortification, especially in animal protein deficient diets. However, these fish flours were not storable for a long duration due to problems of lipid oxidation, because the fishes used were often fatty fishes. Thus, the present work aims to produce fish flours using Bonga fish (Ethmalosa fimbriata) (figure 1), and evaluate their physicochemical, microbiological and nutritional qualities.

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Article source : Evaluation of the microbiological and nutritional quality of two types of fish flours fromEthmalosa fimbriata for their use as a dietary supplement   

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